СПРАВОЧНИК
МОРФОЛОГИЯ
Артикль (THE ARTICLE)
В английском языке есть три артикли: а(аn) - неопределенный, the - определенный и нулевой, т.е. значимое отсутствие артикля.
Артикли являются определителями существительных и ставятся перед ними и зависимыми от них словами. Основное назначение артиклей в английском языке - уточнять смысл употребленных в речи существительных.
Например:
I like ice-cream (вообще люблю мороженое).
I bought an ice-cream for my little sister (одну порцию мороженого).
The ice-cream was very tasty (это купленное мороженое).
1) Неопределенный и нулевой артикли показывают, что существительные употреблены в общем смысле, то есть они не выделены как нечто конкретное. Неопределенный артикль подчеркивает, что речь идет о любой единичный объект из этого класса объектов, обозначенный этим существительным.
She has a new watch.
- Неопределенный артикль употребляется со злічуваними существительными в единственном числе.
- Как и неопределенный артикль, значимое отсутствие артикля перед существительными (нулевой артикль) означает, что речь идет об объекте вообще, однако существительное представлен незлічуваним существительным, или злічуваним существительным во множественном числе.
I don't like milk.
There are flowers in front of my house.
- Основные типы языковых ситуаций, обусловливающих употребление неозначеного артикля:
а) Называние объекта (в единственном числе) вообще. Тот, кто говорит, вводит в речь некий новый объект и относит его к целому классу таких же объектов:
This is a new pen for you.
Going to school I met an old man with a dog.
б) Количественная характеристика объекта, когда неопределенный артикль имеет значение “один”:
Give то a sheet of paper.
- Основные типы языковых ситуаций, обусловливающих значимое отсутствие артикля (нулевой артикль) в речи:
а) Называние объекта вообще или отнесение его к классу таких же предметов. При этом объект означает вещество, абстрактное понятие или неопределенное количество предметов:
Honey is wholesome.
While there is life there is hope.
They sell bags and umbrellas at that counter.
б) Абстрагирование от материального содержания объекта (так называемое “распредмечиванию”). Имеется в виду не назван объект, а деятельность, связанная с этим объектом. В этом случае существительные употребляются для выражения или качественного признака, или характера действия. Обычно такие существительные входят в состав прийменникових и глагольных словосочетаний:
She goes to school every day.
My father usually goes to work by bus.
Примечания:
- Артикль не употребляется перед существительным, после которого стоит количественное числительное, который относится к нему:
Go by bus 35.
This is room 46
- Артикль часто употребляется в телеграммах, объявлениях, газетных и журнальных заголовках:
Library for young man or woman, (the Morning Star)
Girl Gymnast keeps Title. (News)
Present Received Thanks - Pete.
2) Определенный артикль указывает на конкретный объект (объекты), выраженный существительным. Иначе говоря, существительные с выраженным артиклем называют объекты, находящиеся в поле зрения собеседников или известные им:
Do you like the book?
I have got the magazine.
Определенный артикль употребляется с существительными в единственном и множественном числе. Употребление с существительными определенного артикля, что указывает на конкретные объекты, обусловливается следующими языковыми ситуациями:
а) Указание на объект, находящийся в поле зрения собеседников:
Give том the pen, please.
б) Ссылку на объект, известный собеседникам из совместного прошлого опыта:
Do you like the poem ?
в) Дополнительная конкретизация объекта путем указания на некоторые признаки, по которым этот объект отличается от других, подобных ему:
Which is your friend?
The tallest boy in the group.
г) Родовая характеристика объекта. В названном объекте обобщены признаки всего класса объектов, противопоставляя его другим классам:
The telephone was invented in the 19th century.
The tragedy and the comedy first appeared in Greece.
r) Отнесение объекта к числу известных показывает, что он является неотъемлемой частью другого, уже известного собеседникам объекта.
Who is the author?
Следовательно, употребление артиклей обусловливается ситуацией.
Например: в предложении I went to the shop to buy a book употребление неозначеного артикля с существительным book можно объяснить такой ситуацией: “У моего брата был день рождения, и я решил купить ему в подарок какую-то книжку”. В предложении I went to the shop to buy the book употребление определенного артикля перед существительным book можно обосновать так: “Кто-то порекомендовал определенную книгу, или брат хочет иметь именно эту книжку, и я пошел ее купить”.
Для справок:
1. Существительные, обозначающие имена собственные, употребляемые, как правило, без артиклей:
Petro, London, Great Britain : the Crimea, the USA
Если речь идет о членах семьи, то перед фамилией ставится определенный артикль:
The Whites live here.
Если перед фамилией есть слово, которое означает должность, или форма обращения, артикль не употребляется: Professor Stone,Mrs. Brown.
2. Общие существительные в роли обращения употребляются без артиклей.
Соте here, girl.
Listen to me son!
3) Определенный артикль употребляется перед собственными названиями в таких случаях:
а) перед названиями морей, океанов, рек, заливов, каналов, протоков. Названия озер употребляются с выраженным артиклем, если перед собственным названием не стоит слово lake:
the Pacific Ocean, the Mississippi River, the Mediterranean (sea), the Suez Canal, the Finnish Gulf, the English Channel, the Ontario (но Lake Ontario)
б) с названиями некоторых стран, городов, улиц, площадей: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Netherlands, the Congo, the Strand, the Mall
в) с названиями горных массивов (но не отдельных гор): the Alps, the Himalayas, the Carpathians (но Ben Nevis, Everest)
г) с названиями островов и архипелагов: the Canaries, the Malay Archipelago, the Fiji Isles
r) с названиями кораблей, гостиниц, газет, журналов: the “Astoria”, “The Times”
д) с названиями сторон света: the North, the South, the East, the West
е) с названиями памятников, музеев, галерей, библиотек, (кино) театров: the British Museum, the Nelson Monument, the National Gallery
есть) перед существительным с определением, выраженным прилагательным в превосходной степени сравнения: February is the shortest month of the year.
TASKS
Insert articles where necessary and comment on their use.
1. (Общие существительные) (Class nouns)
Here is ... large window. Through ... window we can see ... garden. Opposite ... window there is ... door. On ... door there is ... curtain. In... comer of... room there is ... round table. On table ... we can see ... number of... books and ... telephone. On ... bookshelf near... sofa we can see some ... newspapers and ... book by ... Jack London. There are ... two ... pictures in that room. One ... picture is small and ... other is very large. ... bookcases are full of... books. In ... front of... bookcases we can see ... big box. “Is ... box also full of ... books?”. “Yes, it is”. There is ... large sofa in ... room. On ... sofa we can see ... bag. There is no ... bed in ... room. On ... small table near ... window we can see ... flowers and ... glass of water.... In ... front window of... we can see ... arm-chair.
2.
Here is ... picture of... school building. In ... front of... school there is ... garden. In garden ... we can see ... apple-trees with ... apples on them.
... Autumn is coming. ... leaves are changing ... colour. Some of them are still green, ... others are red or yellow.
There is ... falling leaf from ... branch onto ... ground. ... grass is not yellow. It is still green. ... weather is warm. ... sun is shining brightly. ... sky is blue and clear. There are ... clouds in ... sky. We can see ... birds flying high up in ... air.
In ... middle of... garden there is ... клумбе. There are ... few flowers on ... клумбе. Near ... клумбе we can see ... benches. There are ... lot of ... children in ... garden. They are having ... interval between ... lessons. Some of... children are sitting on ... benches, ... other children are running about in ... garden. ... two women and ... man are walking to ... gate. They are ... teachers. One of... women is ... teacher of ... English. She is carrying ... large bag full of... pupils’ exercise-books. Near ... gate we can see ... boy and girl ... looking at ... black cat sitting in ... tree.
... two old men walking among ... trees are also ... teachers. One of them is holding ... book in ... hand. ... other is holding ... newspaper.
3. English meals
... English people have four meals ... day: ... breakfast, ... dinner, tea ... and ... supper. In some households ... dinner is served in ... evening and ... midday meal is called ... lunch.
... English people prefer ... substantial breakfast of ... porridge or ... bacon and eggs..., ... hot toast, ... bread buttered or ... rolls, marmalade ... or ... jam, ... tea or ... coffee.
... Lunch is usually eaten at about 10'clock. ... cold meat, ... potatoes, ... salad and ... pickles with ... pudding or ... fruit to follow are taken for ... lunch.
In some houses ... dinner is ... principal meal of ... day. ... first course is ... soup, ... second course is some kind of... fish: ... herring, ... cod, etc. ... third course is ... meat and ... vegetables with nearly always ... fried, boiled, baked or mashed potatoes.
Last of all comes ... blackberry and ... apple-pie, ... plum pudding or ... pan-cake. ... poultry, particularly ... chicken, ... duck, ... goose and ... turkey, is often eaten at ... dinner.
Before ... dinner ... table is laid in ... dining-room.
... table-cloth is put on ... table. ... knife, ... fork and spoon ... are put on ... table for each person. ... glasses, napkins, ... decanter of ... water, and ... cruet-stand containing ... salt-cellar, ... pepper-pot and ... mustard-pot are put on table..., too. After meal ... things are cleared away and washed up.
Stricktly speaking ... tea is not ... meal at all. Very often ... guests come to ... tea, which is served in ... drawing-room.
... tea service, i.e. ... cups, ... sausers, ... plates, ... tea-pot and ... sugar-basin are brought in on ... tray.
... plate, ... cup of tea, ... teaspoon, ... knife and ... paper napkin are handed to each guest, and sandwiches..., ... cake, ... buns and ... cakes are handed round. ... tea-making in ... is England ... art.
... hostess pours out ... tea and asks ... guests in turn whether they like their strong tea or weak, with ... sugar or without it.
... omelette or ... sausages, sometimes ... bacon and eggs or ... cold meat is taken for ... supper. That is followed by ... fresh or tinned fruit according to ... season.
4. (Географические названия) (Geographical names)
... Map of... British Isles
Here is ... map of... British Isles. On ... map you can see England...,... Scotland, Wales ... and ... Ireland.
... London is ... capital of... Great Britain. It is also ... capital of... United Kingdom.
Some parts of... England are really beautiful. There are ... lot of... lakes, ... rivers,... hills and mountains ... in ... England. But ... mountains are not very high. ... Cheviot Hills are in ... north of ... country. ... South of... Cheviot Hills one can see ... Pennines. ... West of... Pennines there are ... Cumbrian Mountains. There is ... number of beautiful lakes in ... mountains. This part of ... country is called ... Lake District.
This is ... Wales. There are ... plenty of hills and mountains in Wales.... Here is ... big mountain. Its name is ... Snowdon. It is 3560 feet high.
There is much ... coal in Wales.... It is one of ... big mining districts in Britain.... In ... towns and ... villages of Wales ... one can see thousands of ... miners.
... Britain is ... industrial country. There are ... lot of factories and mines there. Sheffield is ... big centre of... steel industry, and in Manchester there are many textile factories. ... West of Manchester is Liverpool. It is one of ... big ports on ... west coast of ... island.
Glasgow is ... very large city in ... Scotland. It is also ... large sea port and ... big ship-building centre. Edinburgh is ... capital of Scotland.... It is near ... east coast of ... country.
... Oxford, ... Cambridge and ... Edinburgh are ... university towns. You can find ... number of students there.
5.
1. Has ... postman come yet? I am expecting ... letter from my father. 2. My brother can drive ... car. 3. I got... interesting book from ... library. ... librarian said that I could only keep it week for ... as ... teacher of... English also wanted it. 4. She couldn't do such thing.... 5. What ... fine weather we are having today! 6. When ... moon passes between ... earth and ... sun, ... eclipse results. 7. There is ... red book and ... green book on ... table in ... room. 8. Can you tell me how to get to ... museum? Go straight down ... street until you come to ... bridge. Then turn to the right and you will see ... large white building. That is ... museum. 10. I want to write ... letter to ... father. 11. He asked ... student ... question. 12. I'm reading “... American Tragedy”, ... novel by ... Theodore Dreiser. 13. ... door opened and ... man entered ... room. 14. I took ... bus Number 9 and went home. 15. She opened ... book and began to read. ... book was about ... life of ... and poor ... rich in ... USA.
6.
I. I can't find ... book which you gave me ... last week. 2. Yesterday Ispoke to ... man who had just returned from ... north of America.... 3.They were standing on ... top of ... hill. 4. ... magazine which you lent me ... last month is of... great interest. 5. He is ... teacher whom we all like very much. 6. She is ... teacher of... mathematics. 7. I know ... man who lives in ... house where you live. 8. ... street which leads to ... cinema is very wide. 9. ... person who is sitting next to me is ... famous painter. 10....girl standing at ... blackboard is my best friend.
7. (Незлічувані существительные, обозначающие вещества) (Uncountable material nouns)
1. ... coal is one of... most important natural resources in our country. 2. ... most common kind of... fuel used by man is ... wood. 3. Put ... on wood ... fire. 4. ... silver is not so heavy as ... gold. 5. ... oil is known to be lighter than water.... 6. Please cut ... grass in the garden. 7. ... Water which we drink in our town is filtered at waterworks. 8. I don't like ... milk. 9. Pour ... milk into the cup, please. 10. We make ... butter and ... cheese from ... milk. 11. Pass me ... sugar, please. 12. She doesn't like ... sugar. 13. Where is ... sugar? 14. This district is rich in ... coal. 15. Is your shirt made of... silk cotton or...? 16. This is ... bronze, not ... copper. 17. I like ... tea. She likes ... coffee. 18.1 always drink ... boiled water. 19. Bring me ... hot water, please. 20. There is ... snow on the ground. 21. There is ... hot and ... cold water and ... gas in my flat.
8. (Абстрактные существительные) (Abstract nouns)
1. It is ... heavy work. 2. You must face ... life seriously. 3. He likes ... silence of this room. 4. They often sit for hours in ... silence. 5....love is necessary for us. 6. ... love which he gave her was full of ... beauty. 7. Alice knew nothing of literature... except some American writers of the 19th century. 8. This man lives in ... poverty. 9. ... poverty of his room struck us very much. 10. She has ... hard life. 11. In his novels the author describes ... life of... youth in his country. 12. ... air was full of... warmth and ... freshness. 13. I like ... music. 14. ... music which she heard yesterday was beautiful. 15. Last week I learnt ... interesting news. 16. ... news which he told me were of... great interest for our family. 17. I had ... little hope for ... better life. 18.1 spent... good time by my aunt's. 19. ... time spent together gave us both ... great deal of... joy. 20. I can see ... beauty and ... peace of their home. 21. What... delightful weather we are having! 22. Suddenly ... idea came to her. 23. He hated ... idea of going there. 24. Standing on the terrace I could hear ... murmur of ... sea below me. 25. I'll come in ... hour. 26. ... hour spent with him made much good for me. 27. ... light moves quickest of all. 28. It is ... time to start. 29. She didn't like ... changes in life.... 30. He looked at her with ... amazement.
9. (Числительные) (Numerals)
1. Take bus ... Number 8. 2. Take ... first turning to the left. 3.Read ... exercise 3. 4. Find ... chapter 10. 5. I live at ... number 43, Green Street. 6. She bought ... three dozen of apples. 7. She is ... first pupil in her form. 8. ... thousands of people go to the sea in summer. 9.... second attempt proved more successful than ... first. 10. Having eaten the porridge I asked for ... second portion. 11. He made ... second, ... third, ... fourth experiment with the same result. 12. Nobody answered my bell, so I had to ring ... second time. 13. ... two pupils entered the classroom. 14. He lives in ... flat Number 10. 15. I wear ... size thirty-six shoes. 16. There are only ... forty thousand aborigines in Australia. 17.... fourth visit of him to Canada took place in 1995. 18. Today is ... fifth of October. 19. ... thousand new books were sold here last year. 20. ... first text is more difficult than ... second one.
10. (Части мира) (Cardinal points)
1. Canada occupies ... whole of... northern part of ... continent of ... North America and ... number of islands..., ... biggest of which are in Vancouver ... west, Nova Scotia and Ньюфаундленда in ... east and ... Victoria and Baffin Islands in ... north. It stretches from ... forty-ninth parallel in ... to south ... Arctic Circle in ... north and from ... Pacific Ocean in ... west to ... Atlantic Ocean in ... east. 2. ... Rocky Mountains, continuing ... northward from ... USA, stretch parallel to ... canada's Pacific Coast. ... east of these mountains are ... high plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan, ... low plains in ... region of... Great Lakes and ... River St. Lawrence. Mountains also run parallel to ... canada's east coast in ... Labrador and ... Baffin Islands. 3. New Zealand is situated ... south-east of... Australia and consists of three large and many small islands. ... two main islands stretch for nearly 900 miles north from ... to ... south. ... mountains run from ... south-west to ... north-east throughout both ... larger islands. 4. He lived long in ... North. 5.... east of this country is occupied by ... tundra. 6. My best friend came to our town from ... East. 7. He travelled in Canada East from ... to ... West. 8. Rockwell Kent's landscapes show ... beauty of... in nature ... Far North. He was ... explorer of... North. 9. ... silver, ... iron and ...other metals are mined in many parts of Australia, mostly in ... New South Wales. Sugar is produced along ... north-east coast, while fruit-growing is developed in ... south. 10. We live in ... Western Ukraine.
11. ... British Museum
... Bloomsbury Street is ... oldest in ... London. It dates from 1665. It is ... “literary district”, many writers and art critics used to live here. But it is mostly known for ... British Museum, ... pride of Britain....
It is ... immense, light-grey building, like ... Greek temple. (It was founded in 1753).
... British Museum was, and probably is one of... most famous and important libraries in ... world.
... British Museum, situated in ... Great Russell Street, is about ten minutes’ walk from both ... Dean Street and Macclesfield Street. ... lot of people spend ... great deal of time in ... Museum reading-room.
During ... Second World War, ... reading-room was badly damaged, over 150,000 volumes perished in flames ... caused by ... nazi bombs.
... British Museum has ... wonderful art gallery, too. It has ... unique collections of... sculpture,... ceramics, ... drawings, and ... paintings of... Egyptians, Greeks..., ... Romans, ... Normans, ... Africans, ... Chinese, ... Indians and many other peoples.
12. ... Great Britain
... British Isles lie in ... north-west of... Europe. They состоит of ... two large islands, ... Great Britain and Ireland..., and many smaller ones. ... Great Britain, ... largest island in Europe..., includes ... England, ... Scotland and Wales.... It is separated from ... Ireland by ... Irish Sea, and from ... Continent by ... English Channel and ... Straits of Dover. ... Great Britain and ... Northern Ireland form ... United Kingdom.
... surface of... England and Ireland ... is flat, but... surface of... Scotland and Wales ... is mountainous. ... mountains are almost all in ... western part. ... highest mountain in ... United Kingdom is ... Ben Nevis in ... Scotland (1343 m). ... longest river is ... Severn. It is in ... south-west of England.... ... Thames is not so long as ... Severn. ... sea enters deeply into ... land and has ... great influence on ... climate. ... winter is not very cold and ... summer is not very hot.
... main ports of ... country are ... London, ... Liverpool, ... Glasgow and others.
13. (Собственные имена существительные) (Personal nouns)
1. ... Dinny looked up at... house. This wasn't... Dinny I knew many years ago. 2. Margaret was talking to ... Browns. 3. In ... dim light of ... moon he scarcely recognized ... Lily he had known. 4. But ... Mary of that evening wasn't... Mary I knew. 5.1 want to see ... Aunt Betty and ... Uncle Tom next week. 6. ... little Kate began to cry. 7. ... old Peter didn't sleep. 8. Suddenly I saw ... pretty little Ann in ... garden. 9. ... London is ... capital of... Great Britain. 10. This is ... London I often saw in my dreams. 11. There are ... lot of interesting places in ... London, such as: ... Tate Gallery, ... National Gallery, ... National Portrait Gallery, ... British Museum, ... Houses of Parliament, ... Westmister Abbey, ... Buckingham Palace, ... Trafalgar Square. ... best known streets are: ... Whitehall, ... Downing Street, ... residence of... Prime Minister, ... Fleed Street which stands for ... press, ... High Street and ... Strand. 12. Last summer I visited ... Medici Palace. 13. ... doctor Glinn has been working at ... hospital for 5 years already. 14. ... engineer Barstow left ... town for ... North. 15. ... clever Peter knows almost everything. 16. I live in ... Green Street. 17. “... father is not at ... home”, said ... little Jane. 18. ... old Harry doesn't work, he is ... pensioner. 19. I have no doubt that you are ... Miss Wilier I have often heard named. 20....poor Edward couldn't find ... answer. 20. ... great romantic English landscape painter Joseph Mallord William Turner was bom in ... Devonshire.
14. (Дни недели, месяцы) (Days, months)
1. Robinson Crusoe found his servant on ... Friday. 2. ... Sunday is my favourite day in ... week. 3. Let's meet on ... Saturday. 4. I'll never forget... of November 1996. 5. ... cold April is ... usual thing in this region. 6. ... February is... shortest month of year.... 7. ... scientist had been working ... whole June before ... problem was solved. 8. Mary is going to ski in ... country on ... following Sunday. 9. ... last Monday was wet and windy. 10. I was born in ... January, 1973. 11. ... two friends decided to go there on ... Tuesday. ... Tuesday came but they didn't go. 12. It is ... the beginning of... May now. 13. I don't remember exactly when he visited me last, but I am sure it was on ... Friday. 14. My day off is ... Saturday. 15. ... Saturday which came was bright and sunny. 16. I'll leave ... town in ... February. 17. ... warm January is not ... usual thing in Ukraine.
15. London
It is certain that ... foreigner must be surprised by ... first sight of London. It will seem as if there are ships anchored in ... very streets of town..., because ... ships are being loaded and unloaded at ... docks in ... specials pools built along ... river Thames.
On ... other hand London is very attractive for ... tourists. It's very old and full of... historic associations, full of... customs and traditions. Englishmen themselves are ... mixture of... past and present..., of... old - fashioned and ... very modern.
Visitors are usually greatly surprised by ... number of bridges across ... river. ... capital has 14 bridges, ... famous ... London Bridge being among them.
... appearance of London houses has its own peculiarity. ... main feature of almost every rooftop is ... chimney. Modern methods of... internal heating have made ... little difference to this pleasure. There are very few British houses from which ... old fashioned open fire has been eliminated, even though ... central heating has been installed. And ... fireplace requires ... chimney.
There is ... lot of traffic in ... streets of town...: ... endless lines of... buses, motor-cars and taxis. ... traffic regulations in London differ from ours: they drive on ... left side of road... instead of... right.
... quickest way to get about... modem London is ... Underground. It seems that everyone in ... London Underground is always in ... hurry.
... coloured advertisements are everywhere in ... London Underground: on ... walls of... excalator, on platforms...;... special posters advertise everything - ... food,... medicine, ... clothes, ... furniture,... cigarettes.
... streets of London are always of... great interest to ... tourists. In some parts of London they are very much alike, as ... houses are not very big, they are mostly two-storeyed buildings with many front-doors and ... little gardens.
16. Comment on the use of articles or their absence.
1. Chaucer exerted a great influence on English literature.
2. Daniel Defo published his famous book “Robinson Crusoe” when an elderly man.
3. Richardson wrote novels in the form of a series of letters.
4. Robert Burn's father worked hard to make both ends meet.
5. Walter Scott revived the old national and popular element of Scotch poetry.
6. Shelley and Byron met in Switzerland in 1816.
7. Thackeray used the novel as an instrument of satire.
8. When a boy, редьярда киплинга Kipling lived in India.
9. Oskar Wilde dazzled London with ironical social comedies full of wit, epigram and paradox.
10. Keats devoted his life entirely to poetry alone.